銆€銆€缈昏瑭﹂鐨勫懡椤岀壒榛�(di菐n)

銆€銆€鍦ㄨ€冭│閬庣▼涓紝缍�(j墨ng)甯告渻鐧�(f膩)鐝�(xi脿n)閫欐ǎ鐨勭従(xi脿n)璞�锛岄偅灏辨槸鑰冪敓鐨勮鍖噺寰堝ぇ锛屽皪鍙ュ瓙鐨勬瘡鍊嬭嫳鏂囧柈瑭為兘瑾�(r猫n)璀�锛屼絾缈昏鍑轰締鐨勫彞瀛愬嵒涓嶅鐞嗘兂锛岀壒鍒ユ槸鍦ㄥ皪鏁村€嬪彞瀛愮殑鐞嗚В鍜屾饥瑾炶〃閬�(d谩)涓婃瑺閫氶爢锛岃垏鍙冭€冪瓟妗堢殑妯�(bi膩o)婧�(zh菙n)鐩稿幓鐢氶仩(yu菐n)銆傞€犳垚閫欑ó鎯呮硜鐨勫師鍥犲緢澶�锛屼絾鑰冪敓鑻ヨ兘浜嗚В鑻辫婕㈣│椤岀殑鐗归粸(di菐n)锛屽皪甯歌鐨勫舰寮忔湁鎵€鎶婃彙锛屽仛鍒板績涓湁鏁�(sh霉)锛岄€欏皪鎴愮妇鐨勬彁楂橀潪甯搁噸瑕併€備笅闈㈡槸灏嶈繎骞惧勾鐨�鑰冪爺鐪熼鐨勫垎鏋�锛屾绱嶅嚭涓夊€嬬壒榛�(di菐n)锛屽笇鏈涘皪鑰冪敓鑳芥湁鎵€鍟熺ず銆�

銆€銆€1锛夊彞瀛愯純闀�銆佺祼(ji茅)妲�(g貌u)寰�(f霉)闆溿€佸収(n猫i)瀹规娊璞�

銆€銆€銆婂ぇ缍便€嬭姹�锛岃嫳璀饥鐣窔閮ㄥ垎鐨�5鍊嬪皬椤岀殑绺藉瓧?j菒n)?sh霉)绱勭偤150瑭炲乏鍙�锛岄€欐ǎ涓€渚�锛屾瘡鍊嬪皬椤岃鍖噺鐨勫钩鍧囩磩鐐�30鍊嬨€傝繎骞惧勾鐨勮│椤岄兘绗﹀悎閫欎竴瑕佹眰銆�

銆€銆€銆愪緥濡傘€�

銆€銆€It applies equally to traditional historians who views history as only the external and internal criticism of sources, and to social science historians who equate their activity with specific techniques. (1999骞磋│椤�)

銆€銆€瑙ｆ瀽锛氭暣鍊嬪彞瀛愬叡鏈�30鍊嬪柈瑭�锛岀祼(ji茅)妲�(g貌u)姣旇純寰�(f霉)闆�銆傛暣鍊嬪彞瀛愭槸鐢变竴鍊嬩富鍙�銆佸叐鍊嬪畾瑾炲緸鍙ョ祫鎴愮殑涓诲緸寰�(f霉)鍚堝彞锛屼富鍙ョ殑鍩烘湰绲�(ji茅)妲�(g貌u)鏄� “It applies equally to …, and to …”锛涚敱鍏╁€媤ho寮曞皫(d菐o)鐨勫畾瑾炲緸鍙ュ潎淇＞historians; applies equally to, 姝よ檿鎳�(y墨ng)鐞嗚В鐐�“鍚屾ǎ瀛樺湪浜�”锛岃€屼笉鎳�(y墨ng)璀綔“鍚屾ǎ閬╃敤浜�”锛涘叐鍊嬬煭瑾炴槸瀹氳獮寰炲彞涓殑view … as …鍜宔quate … with …锛涚偤浜嗗彞瀛愯〃閬�(d谩)骞宠　鐨勯渶瑕�锛屽彲鍏堣涓诲彞锛岀劧鍚庡啀璀叐鍊嬪畾瑾炲緸鍙ョ殑鍏�(n猫i)瀹癸紝鐢�“鍓嶈€�……锛屽悗鑰�……”琛ㄧず锛岄伩鍏嶉噸寰�(f霉)锛岄€欐ǎ璀嚭鐨勫彞瀛愮祼(ji茅)妲�(g貌u)娓呮櫚鏄庝簡锛屾槗浜庢帴 鍙�銆傚彟澶栵紝绲�(ji茅)鍚堜笂涓嬫枃锛宨t鎸囩殑鏄�“姝ょó璎”锛泃heir activity鎸囩殑鏄�“姝峰彶鐮旂┒”锛屼笉瀹滅洿璀偤“浠栧€戠殑娲诲嫊”銆�

銆€銆€璀枃锛氶€欑ó璎鍚屾ǎ瀛樺湪浜庢鍙插偝绲�(t菕ng)娲惧拰姝峰彶绀剧娲�锛屽墠鑰呰獚(r猫n)鐐烘鍙插氨鏄枃瀛�(xu茅)鐣屽収(n猫i)閮ㄥ拰澶栭儴浜哄＋灏嶅悇绋彶鏂欎締婧愮殑瑭曡珫锛屽悗鑰呰獚(r猫n)鐐烘鍙茬殑鐮旂┒鏄叿楂旀柟娉曠殑鐮旂┒銆�

銆€銆€Social science is that branch of intellectual enquiry which seeks to study humans and their endeavors in the same reasoned, orderly, systematic, and dispassioned manner that natural scientists use for the study of natural phenomena. (2003骞磋│椤�)

銆€銆€瑙ｆ瀽锛氭暣鍊嬪彞瀛愬叡鏈�35鍊嬪柈瑭�锛屾槸杓冮洠鎶婃彙鐨勪竴鍊嬪彞瀛�銆傞€欐槸灏嶇ぞ鏈冪瀛�(xu茅)鐨勬蹇靛仛鍑虹殑涓€鍊嬭珫杩�锛屽洜鑰岃鎴愭饥瑾炴檪(sh铆)瑕侀珨鐝�(xi脿n)鍑哄垽鏂峰彞鐨勭祼(ji茅)妲�(g貌u)渚�銆傝嫳鏂囧師鍙ヤ腑绗竴鍊� that鏄竴鍊嬫寚绀轰唬瑭烇紝鑰屽苟闈為€ｈ锛屾矑鏈夊紩灏�(d菐o)涓€鍊嬭〃瑾炲緸鍙�锛岄€欐槸棣栧厛瑕佽獚(r猫n)娓呯殑鍦版柟锛涘叾娆¤鐭ラ亾鐢眞hich鍜岀浜屽€媡hat寮曞皫(d菐o)鐨勫叐鍊嬪畾瑾炲緸鍙ュ垎鍒ヤ慨椋� branch鍜宮anner锛岀炕璀彞瀛愭檪(sh铆)鍏堣檿鐞嗕富鍙�锛岀劧鍚庨噸鏂扮祫绻斿悗閭婄殑淇＞鎴愬垎锛岄€欐ǎ椤緱閫氶爢銆佽嚜鐒�銆�

銆€銆€璀枃锛氱ぞ鏈冪瀛�(xu茅)鏄煡璀樻帰绱㈢殑涓€鍊嬪垎鏀紝瀹冨姏姹傚儚鑷劧绉戝(xu茅)瀹剁爺绌惰嚜鐒剁従(xi脿n)璞￠偅妯�锛岀敤鐞嗘€х殑銆佹湁搴忕殑銆佺郴绲�(t菕ng)鐨勫拰鍐烽潨鐨勬柟寮忕爺绌朵汉椤炲強鍏惰鐐恒€�

銆€銆€2锛夊皪鐣窔閮ㄥ垎鍙ュ瓙鐨勭悊瑙ｉ渶鍊熷姪涓婁笅鏂�

銆€銆€“涓婁笅鏂�”閫氬父鎸囧師鍙ヤ腑鍏�(n猫i)瀹逛箣闁撶殑鑱�(li谩n)绯�銆佽獮缇╀箣闁撶殑闂�(gu膩n)鑱�(li谩n)銆佽獮娉曢爡(xi脿ng)鐩箣闁撶殑鍛兼噳(y墨ng)?锛熷繉顚ｈ岸M(j矛n)琛岃嫳璀饥缈昏鏅�(sh铆)鍙湁鍦ㄩ€氳畝鍏ㄦ枃鐨勫墠鎻愪笅锛屾墠鑳芥簴(zh菙n)纰哄湴鐞嗚В骞惰鍑虹暙绶� 閮ㄥ垎鐨勫彞瀛�銆傚湪瑾炴硶灞ら潰涓�锛屽€熷姪涓婁笅鏂囨瘮杓冨父瑕嬬殑鏄⒑瀹氫唬瑭炵殑鎵€鎸囧拰鐪佺暐鍙ョ殑瑁�(b菙)鍏�銆傛湁鐨勫湴鏂归渶瑕佽(b菙)鍔犺鍖獮缇╂洿鍔犳槑鏅�锛屾湁鐨勫湴鏂瑰張瑕佸幓鎺変簺閲嶅京(f霉)鐨勮鍖娇鍙ュ瓙鏇村姞绮剧反銆�

銆€銆€Actually, it isn’t, because it assumes that there is an agreed account of human rights, which is something the world does not have. (1997骞磋│椤�)

銆€銆€瑙ｆ瀽锛氬彞涓殑it鏄寚涓婁笅鏂囦腑鐨凞o animals have right? 閫欏彞瑭�銆傚彧鏈夌悊瑙ｆ墍鎸囨墠鑳芥簴(zh菙n)纰哄湴璀嚭鍘熸剰锛岀祼(ji茅)鍚堜笂涓嬫枃锛岀敤“閫欑ó鍟忔硶”璀嚭锛屾棦鏄庣⒑浜唅t鎵€鎸囩殑鍏�(n猫i)瀹癸紝鍙堝鍔犱簡璀枃鐨勯€ｈ搏鎬�锛屽緸鑰岀郸浜轰互鏄庣⒑鍜岄€氶爢鐨勬劅 瑕�銆傚彟澶�锛屽彞涓殑which鏄寚that there is an agreed account of human rights锛岀炕璀檪(sh铆)鏈夊繀瑕侀噸寰�(f霉)涓€涓媤hich鎸囦唬鐨勫収(n猫i)瀹�锛屼娇鍙ユ剰琛ㄩ仈(d谩)鏇存槑浜嗐€�

銆€銆€璀枃锛氫簨瀵�(sh铆)骞堕潪濡傛锛屽洜?y脿n)妾獲绋晱娉曟槸浠ヤ汉鍊戝皪浜虹殑娆�(qu谩n)鍒╂湁鍏卞悓瑾�(r猫n)璀樼偤鍩虹(ch菙)鐨�锛岃€岄€欑ó鍏卞悓瑾�(r猫n)璀樺苟涓嶅瓨鍦ㄣ€�

銆€銆€When that happens, it is not a mistake: It is mankind’s instinct for moral reasoning in action, an instinct that should be encouraged rather than laughed at. (1997骞磋│椤�)

銆€銆€瑙ｆ瀽锛氭湰鍙ュ湪缈昏鏅�(sh铆)瑕佹悶娓呮鍓嶅崐鍙hat鎵€浠ｈ〃鐨勫収(n猫i)瀹�锛岄€欏氨闇€瑕佸€熷姪涓婃枃銆侷n action鍙鐐�“鍦ㄦ椿鍕曞湪璧蜂綔鐢紝鍦ㄩ亱(y霉n)杞�(zhu菐n)”銆侫n instinct鏄痬ankind’s instinct鐨勫悓浣嶈獮锛岀炕璀檪(sh铆)瑕侀€�(j矛n)琛岃(b菙)鍏呰鏄�銆�

銆€銆€璀枃锛氶€欑ó鍙嶆噳(y墨ng)骞朵笉閷紝閫欐槸浜洪鐢ㄩ亾寰疯蹇垫帹鐞嗙殑鏈兘鍦ㄨ捣浣滅敤銆傞€欑ó鏈兘鎳�(y墨ng)寰楀埌榧撳嫷锛岃€屼笉鎳�(y墨ng)閬埌鍢插紕銆�

銆€銆€Under modern conditions, this requires varying measures of centralized control and hence the help of specialized scientists such as economists and operational research experts. (2000骞磋│椤�)

銆€銆€瑙ｆ瀽锛氭湰鍙ヤ腑鐨勪富瑾炵偤浠ｈthis锛屾寚鍓嶆枃涓彁鍒扮殑governments throughout the world act on the assumption … 閫欎欢浜�锛岄洊瑾笉蹇呭叏閮ㄨ鍑�锛屼絾鑰冪敓鎳�(y墨ng)鐞嗚В鍏舵墍鎸囷紝閫欐湁鍔╀簬鎺屾彙鍏ㄥ彞鐨勬剰鎬�銆傚彞瀛愮殑璩撹獮鏄敱and閫ｆ帴鐨刴easures鍜宼he help銆�

銆€銆€璀枃锛氬湪鐝�(xi脿n)浠ｆ浠朵笅锛岄€欓渶瑕佺▼搴︿笉鍚岀殑涓ぎ鎺у埗锛屽緸鑰屽氨闇€瑕佺嵅寰楄濡傜稉(j墨ng)婵�(j矛)瀛�(xu茅)鍜岄亱(y霉n)绫屽(xu茅)闋�(l菒ng)鍩�?q奴)锛滆鍏婅啴f(xi茅)鍔�銆�

銆€銆€3锛夊彞瀛愪腑鐨勮鍖竴瑭炲缇╃殑鎯呮硜杓冨

銆€銆€鑻辫獮瑭炲尟涓竴瑭炲缇╃殑鎯呮硜鐩哥暥(d膩ng)鏅亶锛岄€欏氨闇€瑕佽€冪敓鏍规摎(j霉)鍙ュ瓙鐨勫収(n猫i)瀹规垨涓婁笅鏂囧幓鍒ゆ柗婧�(zh菙n)纰虹殑鎰忔€�锛岄€�(j矛n)琛屽彇鑸�锛岃€屼笉瑕佹兂鐣�(d膩ng)鐒跺湴鏈涙枃鐢熺京锛岄€犳垚瑾よВ銆�

銆€銆€銆愪緥濡傘€�

銆€銆€Interest in historical methods has arisen less through external challenge to the validity of history as an intellectual discipline and more from internal quarrels among historians them-selves. (1999骞磋│椤�)

銆€銆€瑙ｆ瀽锛氬彞涓殑discipline涓€瑭為€氬父鎸�“绱€(j矛)寰�锛涜〒(x霉n)绶�锛涙嚥缃�”绛�锛屼絾涔熸槸“瀛�(xu茅)绉�”鐨勬剰鎬濓紝闆栦笉甯歌锛屼絾鍙ュ瓙鐨勪笂涓嬫枃鍛婅ù鎴戝€戣鎴�“绱€(j矛)寰�”鏄偗瀹氳涓嶉€氱殑銆�

銆€銆€璀枃锛氫汉鍊戜箣鎵€浠ラ棞(gu膩n)娉ㄦ鍙茬爺绌剁殑鏂规硶璜�锛屼富瑕佹槸鍥�?y脿n)妲┘W(xu茅)鐣屽収(n猫i)閮ㄦ剰瑕嬩笉涓€锛屽叾娆℃槸鍥�?y脿n)姗ラエ缁拤寰絁(r猫n)鐐烘鍙叉槸涓€闁€瀛�(xu茅)鍟�銆�

銆€銆€Some philosophers argue that rights exist only within a social contract, as part of an exchange of duties and entitlements. (1997骞磋│椤�)

銆€銆€瑙ｆ瀽锛氭湰鍙ユ簴(zh菙n)纰虹炕璀殑闂�(gu膩n)閸靛湪浜庡皪涓€浜涜瑾炵殑姝ｇ⒑鐞嗚В銆傚嫊瑭瀉rgue甯镐綔“鐖珫锛岀埈杈�”锛岄倓鍙紩鐢崇偤“锛堝爡(ji膩n)鎸侊級瑾�(r猫n)鐐猴紝涓诲嫉”锛沜ontract涓€鑸剰鐐� “鍚堝悓”锛屼絾鍥犺垏social閫ｇ敤锛岄€氬父璀偤“绀炬渻濂戠磩”銆侱uties鍜宔ntitlements鍒嗗垾璀綔“璨�(z茅)浠绘垨缇╁嫏(w霉)”鍜�“娆�(qu谩n)鍒�”锛岄€ｅ湪涓€璧峰彲璀偤 “璨�(z茅)鑸囨瑠(qu谩n)”銆�

銆€銆€璀枃锛氭湁浜涘摬瀛�(xu茅)瀹惰珫璀夎锛屾瑠(qu谩n)鍒╁彧瀛樺湪浜庣ぞ鏈冨绱勪腑锛屾槸璨�(z茅)鑸囨瑠(qu谩n)鐩镐氦鎻涚殑涓€閮ㄥ垎銆�